In recent years the interest in expertise and proficiency has been raising; in educational research; knowledge management as well as in cognitive science. The expert’s know how or procedural knowledge is often hidden even for him or her self; it is tacit. ”We can know more than we can tell”.(Polanyi; 1967) This paper is an “Integrative research review”; trying to show new aspects of experience-based learning and the development of expertise. Several new results from brain imaging studies and from neuropsychology gives reason to believe that experts utilize nondeclarative; implicit memories to perform better. These results delivers new ways of understanding how experts perceive; assess; decide and take action.
BACKMAN, J. (1998). Rapporter och uppsatser. Lund: Studentlitteratur.
BEILOCK, S. L., WIERENGA, S. A., & CARR, T. H. (2002). Expertise, attention, and memory in sensorimotor skill execution: Impact of novel task constraints on dual-task performance and episodic memory. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology.
BENNER, P. (1984). From novice to expert: excellence and power in clinical nursing practice. Menlo Park, Calif.: Addison-Wesley.
ENNER, P. (1997). Becoming an Expert Nurse. American Journal of Nursing, 97(6), 16.
‘BERLINER, D. C. (1986). In Pursuit of the Expert Pedagogue. Educational Researcher, 15(7), 5-13.
BERLINER, D. C. (1994). A model of teaching expertise. In Continuing discussions in teacher certification testing.
BJÖRKLUND, L. (2006). Addressing Modern Technology in Science Education, a Systems Approach. In R. M. Janiuk & E. Samonek-Miciuk (Eds.), Science and Technology Education for a Diverse World (pp. 123-134). Lublin: Maria Curie-Skodowska University Press.
BJÖRKLUND, L. (in press). THE REPERTORY GRID TECHNIQUE: Making Tacit Knowledge Explicit: Assessing Creative work and Problem solving skills. In H. Middleton (Ed.), Researching Technology Education: Methods and techniques. Netherlands,: Sense Publishers.
BJÖRKLUND, L., & KLASANDER, C. (2004). Understanding Technological Systems, Classroom Implications for a Systems Approach. Paper presented at the 3rd Biennial International Conference on Technology Education Research, Brisbane.
CARA, F., & LAGRANGE, V. (1999). Emerging expertise in process control. Ergonomics, 42(11), 1418-1430.
CELLIER , J. M., EYROLLE, H., & MARINÉ, C. (1997). Expertise in dynamic environments. ERGONOMICS, 40(1), 28-50.
CHEN, Z. (1995). Analogical transfer: From schematic pictures to problem solving. Memory & Cognition, 23(2), 255-269.
CHI, M. T. H. (2006). Two Approaches to the Study of Experts’ Characteristics. In K. A. Ericsson (Ed.), The Cambridge handbook of expertise and expert performance (pp. 21-38). Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press.
COOPER. (1984). The integrative research review. Beverly Hills CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
CRONIN, M. A. (2004). A Model of Knowledge Activation and Insight in Problem Solving. Complexity, 9(5), 17-24.
DAMASIO, A. R. (1996). Descartes’ error: emotion, reason and the human brain (New ed.). London: Papermac.
DAW, N. D., O’DOHERTY, J. P., DAYAN, P., SEYMOUR, B., & DOLAN, R. J. (2006). Cortical substrates for exploratory decisions in humans. Nature, 44(15), 876-879.
DE GROOT, A. (1946). Thought and Choice and Chess. The Hague, The Netherlands: Mouton. DEGONDA, N., MONDADORI, C. R. A., BOSSHARDT, S., SCHMIDT, C. F., BOESIGER, P., NITSCH, R. M., et al. (2005). Implicit Associative Learning Engages the Hippocampus and Interacts with Explicit Associative Learning. Neuron, 46(3), 505-520.
DHILLON, A. S. (1998). Individual Differences within Problem-Solving Strategies Used in Physics. Science Education (82), 379-405. DIENES, Z., & FAHEY, R. (1998). The Role of Implicit Memory in Controling a Dynamic System. The Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 51A(3), 593-614.
DIJKSTERHUIS, A. (2006). Where creativity resides: The generative power of unconscious thought. Consciousness and Cognition (15), 135-146.
REYFUS, H. L., & DREYFUS, S. E. (1986). Mind over Machine. Oxford: Basil Blackwell Ltd.
DREYFUS, S. E. (2004). The Five-Stage Model of Adult Skill Acquisition. Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society, 24(3), 177-181.
EPSTEIN, S., LIPSON, A., HOLSTEIN, C., & HUH, E. (1992). Irrational Reactions to Negative Outcomes: Evidence for Two Conceptual Systems. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 62(2), 328-339.
ERICSSON, A. K., & CHARNESS, N. (1997). Cognitive and Developmental Factors in Expert Performance. In P. J. Feltovich, K. M. Ford & R. R. Hoffman (Eds.), Expertise in Context(pp. 3-41). Menlo Park: AAAI Press / The MIT Press.
FRENSCH, P. A., & RUNGER, D. (2003). Implicit Learning. Current directions in Psychological Science.
GROOT, A. D. D. (1965). Thought and choice in chess. The Hague ...,.
GÄRDENFORS, P. (2000). Intuition as Implicit Knowledge. In S. Sandström (Ed.), Intuitive formation of meaning (Vol. 48, pp. 140, [144]). Stockho: Konferenser / Kungl. Vitterhets historie och antikvitets akademien.
GÖCKER, M. (1997). The effects of experience during design problem solving. Design Studies.
HARTLEY, T., MAGUIRE, E. A., SPIERS, H. J., & BURGESS, N. (2003). The Well-Worn Route and the Path Less Traveled: Distinct Neural Bases of Route Following and Wayfinding in Humans. Neuron, 37(5), 877-888.
HIRTZ, J. (2002). A functional basis for engineering design. Research in Engineering Design (13), 65-82.
HMELO-SILVER, C. E., & PFEFFER, M. G. (2004). Comparing expert and novice understanding of a complex system from the perspective of structures, behaviours, and functions. Cognitive Science (28), 127-138.
HOFFMAN, R. R. (1998). How can expertise be defined? In R. Williams, W. Faulkner & J. Fleck (Eds.), Exploring expertise (pp. 81-100). New York: Macmillan.
JACOBSON, M. J. (2001). Problem Solving, Cognition, and Complex Systems: Differences between Experts and Novices. Complexity, 6(3), 41-49.
JOHANSSON, T., & KROKSMARK, T. (2004). Teachers’ intuition-in-action: how teachers experience action. Reflective Practice, 5(3), 357-381. KAGAN, D. M. (1988). Teaching as Clinical Problem Solving: A Critical Examination of the Analogy and Its Implications. Review of Educational Research, 58(4), 482-505.
KAHN, I., YESHURUN, Y., ROTSHTEIN, P., FRIED, I., BEN-BASHAT, D., & HENDLER, T. (2002). The Role of the Amygdalain Signaling Prospective Outcome of Choice. Neuron, 33(6), 983-994.
KROKSMARK, T. (1997). Teacher intuition, didactic intuition. Göteborg: Institutionen för metodik Univ.
LIEBERMAN, M. D. (2000). Intuition: A Social Cognitive Neuroscience Approach. Psychological Bulletin, 126(1), 109-137. LIGHT, R. J., & PILLEMER, D. B. (1984). Summing up, the science of reviewing research. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press.
LOGAN, G. D. (1988). Toward an Instance Theory of Automatization. Psychological Review, 95(4), 492-527.
LOGAN, G. D. (2002). An Instance Theory of Attention and Memory. Psychological Review, 109(2), 376-400.
NIGHTINGALE, P. (1998). A cognitive model of innovation. Research Policy (27), 689–709.
NISBETT, R. E., & WILSON, T. D. (1977). Telling more than we can know: Verbal reports on mental processes. Psycological Review, 84(3).
PAAS, F., RENKL, A., SWELLER, J. (2003). Load Theory and Instructional Design: Recent Developments. Educational Psychologist, 38(1), 1-4.
PASLEY, B. N., MAYES, L. C., & SCHULTZ, R.T. (2004). Subcortical Discrimination of Unperceived Objects during Binocular Rivalry. Neuron, 42(1), 163-172.
PEIGNEUX, P., MAQUET, P., MEULEMANS, T., DESTREBECQZ, A., LAUREYS, S., DEGUELDRE, C., et al. (2000). Striatum Forever, Despite Sequence Learning Variability: A Random Effect Analysis of PET Data. Human Brain Mapping (10), 179–194.
PERKINS, D. N., & SALOMON, G. (1989). Are Cognitive Skills Context-Bound? Educational Researcher, 18(1), 16-25.
PHELPS, E. A., & LEDOUX, J. E. (2005). Contributions of the Amygdala to Emotion Processing: From Animal Models to Human Behavior. Neuron, 48(2), 175-187.
POLANYI, M. (1967). The tacit dimension. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday.
PRIEST, A. G. (1992). New light on novice-expert differences in physics problem solving. British Journal of Psychology (83), 389-405.
REBER, A. S. (1967). Implicit learning of artificial grammars. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior (6), 855-863.
REBER, A. S. (1989). Implicit Learning and Tacit Knowledge. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 118(3), 219-235.
ROGAN, M. T., LEON, K. S., PEREZ, D. L., & KANDEL, E. R. (2005). Distinct Neural Signatures for Safety and Danger in the Amygdala and Striatum of the Mouse. Neuron, 46(2), 309-320.
RYLE, G. (1949). The concept of mind (13. impr. ed.). London: Hutchinson.
SCHACTER, D. L. (1992). Understanding Implicit Memory: A Cognitive Neuroscience Approach. American Psychologist, 47(4), 559-569.
SCHON, D. A. (1987). The Reflective Practitioner. London: Temple Smith.
SEGER, C. A. (1994). Implicit Learning. Psychological Bulletin, 115(2), 163-196. SLOMAN, S. A. (1996). The Empirical Case for Two Systems of Reasoning. Psychological Bulletin, 119(1), 3-22.
SMITH, A. P. R., STEPHAN, K. E., RUGG, M. D., & DOLAN, R. J. (2006). Task and Content Modulate Amygdala-Hippocampal Connectivity in Emotional Retrieval. Neuron, 49(4), 631-638.
SQUIRE, L. R. (2004). Memory systems of the brain: A brief history and current perspective. Neurobiology of Learning and Memory (82), 171-177.
STEFL, M. E. (2003). Expert Leaders for Healthcare Administration. Healtcare Papers, 4(1), 59-63.
STERNBERG, R. J. (1998). Abilities Are Forms of Developing Expertise. Educational Researcher, 27(3), 11-20.
STEVENSON, J. (2003). Expertise for the workplace. In J. Stevenson (Ed.), Developing vocational expertise (pp. 3-25). Rows Nest Australia: Allen & Unwin.
UN, R., SLUSARZ, P., & TERRY, C. (2005). The Interaction of the Explicit and the Implicit in Skill Learning: A Dual-Process Approach. Psychological Review, 112(1), 159-192.
SWAN, L., OTANI, H., LOUBERT, P. V., SHEFFERT, S. M., & DUNBAR, G. L. (2004). Improving balance by performing a secondary cognitive task. British Journal of Psychology (95), 31-40.
VOERMANS, N. C., PETERSSON, K. M., DAUDEY, L., WEBER, B., SPAENDONCK, K. P. V., KREMER, H. P. H., et al. (2004). Interaction between the Human Hippocampus and the Caudate Nucleus during Route Recognition. Neuron, 43(3), 427-435.
